PIANO TECHNIQUE (by Roberto Prosseda)

Con questo post diamo inizio ad una serie di brevi riflessioni sul funzionamento della tecnica pianistica, al fine di ottenere un più efficace e consapevole controllo del suono e dell’espressione musicale. Osserveremo come i principi della fisica (inerzia, gravità, principi delle leve e della dinamica) siano facilmente applicabili alla meccanica pianistica e all'uso del nostro corpo per suonare più efficacemente il pianoforte.

THE SOUND PRODUCTION AT THE PIANO: FROM THE IDEA TO THE KEY

Before we delve into the analysis of the technical tools with which to manage sound production, it is essential to have in mind a clear idea of the timbre we want to produce. It is useful, therefore, to think of each sound or melodic group as one or a series of vectors: of each we must be clear about its direction, orientation and speed.

The idea of sound must, in practice, include a precise dynamic gradation (ppp, or mp, etc.) and a direction, which determines a clear relationship between the sound itself and the one that precedes it and the one that follows. From the relationship between multiple sounds arises musical meaning. Every sound that is emitted by the piano, in fact, must carry with it a message. The message is always characterized by a direction, that is, a movement that follows a certain straight or curved line, at a certain speed, and with an ideal goal. We can imagine sounds going upward, others falling downward, others remaining suspended in midair. These are, of course, mental suggestions, but they result in sounds with different timbral characteristics.

Once we are clear about the above characteristics for each sound we are about to perform, we will know how to find the gesture that corresponds to that particular sound: the direction we imagine will, in fact, produce a consequent gesture. If we imagine a sound going upward, it will be instinctive to make an elastic movement of the forearm and wrist, as if the sound were coming out of the keyboard to "evaporate" upward, attaching the key softly, being already in contact with it with the fingertip of the finger (not the fingertip), and releasing it gradually. Conversely, if we imagine a "sinking" sound, a downward vertical gesture will come naturally, with gradual unloading of the arm's weight, and with a finger movement proceeding inward toward the fret.

We have thus exemplified two of the sound types (commonly one would say two "touch types"): the "up" sound and the "down" sound, different and complementary, which I personally consider the basis of piano technique. In both cases, the finger does not act for itself, but always as the last link in a chain of levers and movements that start from the pianist's torso, passing through all the joints we can use: shoulder, elbow, wrist, and the three phalanges. All the levers involved (arm, forearm, hand, and the three phalanges of each finger) are active and supportive, in the sense that they participate in the movement with their respective muscles, which are in slight tension so as not to let any lever be yielding. This does not necessarily imply that all phalanges must be in motion during sound production, but they must maintain tension so as to transmit the kinetic energy imparted by the arm up to the hammer striking the string.

LEVERAGES AND DYNAMIC CONTROIL

Piano mechanics is a complex system of levers. It is, therefore, useful to observe how the laws of physics determine how the mechanics works, and, consequently, how we interact with it.

When we lower a key we become part of the piano mechanics. The end point of our gesture, however, is not the bottom of the key stroke, but the string. Ideally, then, our finger is imparting "our" sound not to the fret, but to the strings themselves, by means of the lever system that transmits movement to them via the fret and the hammer. That is why, as our finger becomes part of that system, it is useful for it to be as integral as possible with the other levers, and, therefore without any "play" that could cause energy loss. For this reason, in general, I find it useful to maintain a good grip between the finger and the key, working with extreme care to achieve optimal economy of movement. After all, looking at great pianists, it jumps out at you how almost all of them tend to be with their fingers already on the key before they press the key. Even pianists who seemingly detach their hand from the keyboard actually do this after the sound has been emitted, or to prepare the finger movement, but reaching contact with the key a moment before lowering it.

The levers of piano mechanics are apparently unchangeable, in that we cannot move the fulcrums of the levers, although we can intervene in some of their parameters, such as the length of the key we use (by varying the point at which we play it and the angle of attack) and the stroke of the key (and, consequently, of the hammer), if we press the key starting from a position of partial lowering.

We must consider that the more advantageous levers are, the easier it is for us to control the movement and, consequently, to dose the dynamics and acquire an adequate volume of sound.

A lever is advantageous if the applied force required is less than the resisting force, that is, if the arm-resistance is shorter than the arm-power. The lever with which our fingers interact is, of course, the fret, which is the first (and longest) lever in piano mechanics. The length of the entire key is much greater than just the visible part on the keyboard.

So, to make our approach with the key advantageous, it is useful to use a long lever, possibly longer than the part of the key that reaches to the fulcrum (the arm-power of the key lever). If we simply lower the key with just the movement of our finger, we will use a much shorter lever.

Therefore, for smoother control and for the production of a full, well-resonant sound, it is important to use long levers with a speed-to-weight ratio such that a low key lowering speed and consistent weight are used.

This applies not only to forte sounds, but also to pianissimo. In fact, even infinitesimal shifts are controlled more precisely if long levers with little travel are used. To realize this, just try moving a pencil one millimeter to the left, using first the movement of the finger alone, and then that of the entire arm, as a single lever. We will notice that by moving the pencil with the arm we gain control and precision of movement.

MANAGING THE JOINTS

We continue our observation of the principles of levers as applied to piano technique. In the previous post we talked about simple levers, and how using our long levers (the whole arm rather than just the finger) facilitates both control and power of sound. Of course, there are many combinations of levers we can manage, and it is not possible to diagram them precisely.

Each joint of our arm, from the shoulder to the third phalanx of each finger, constitutes, in fact, a joint, the flexibility and movement of which we can manage.

If we block the movement of all our "joints," we will use a rigid lever, transmitting arm movement directly from the shoulder to the key.

Conversely, if we leave one or more joints (elbow, wrist and the three phalanges) free, we will apply a number of variations to our lever, making the transmission of movement, and consequently of sound, more indirect. The careful and conscious opening and closing of the joints, as if they were the switches of a railway system, allows us, therefore, to diversify the emission of sound according to our expressive and poetic needs.

A "direct" sound, i.e., obtained with a long, rigid lever, will have greater focus, while an "indirect" sound, obtained with a controlled bending of one or more joints, will create greater color shading. With this technique we will then be able to manage "sound focus." When performing several voices at once, for example, we may decide to emphasize the main melody by performing it with a long taut lever (locked joints), and at the same time we may give a more blurred contour to the inner accompaniment parts by unlocking the joints of the three phalanges of the respective fingers, with the effect of a greater distance (or "depth of field") between the main subject and the background.

Another aspect related to the management of our levers is that of angle of attack. Using the same type of lever (and the same "joints") we can make a movement more or less perpendicular to the key. This also affects the sonic result, making the fret attack more direct (if it is perpendicular) or less direct (if it is more oblique and grazing to the fret). In fact, a perpendicular attack transfers motion to the hammer in a direct manner, causing the hammer motion to accelerate rapidly toward the string. Conversely, a horizontally "spread" attack will produce less acceleration of the hammer, resulting in a softer and deeper, but less brilliant sound.

Depending on our expressive needs, we can then choose the most appropriate attack. For example, a singable melody, even if it is in forte, will sound best when played with a grazing attack and long, taut levers. Conversely, a dry, punchy chord will require a more direct and rapid attack.

One could go on further in analyzing the various combinations of attacks and levers, but I prefer to stop here, and invite all readers to experience for themselves at the keyboard the differences in color derived from their different key attacks. Only by personally discovering the workings of these infinite combinations will it be possible to build one's own toneboard. And the colors discovered directly will be the ones we know how to use with greater awareness and gratification.

PIANIST'S PAINTBRUSHES

Speaking of piano timbre, it is useful to think of our fingers as taking the shape of many different brushes. Just as a painter chooses the most appropriate brush for the stroke he or she intends to paint, similarly a pianist can manage touch by deciding which part of the finger to play each key with. Characteristics that determine the stroke of a brush include the thickness, length, flexibility, and density of the bristles. By analogy, pianists can choose from a wide gradation of similar parameters based on how they use each finger.

1. The surface area where the finger rests on the fret (the thickness of the bristles): the larger the surface area (for example, if we play with the thumb, or with another finger in a flat position), the more mellow the sound will be, like a brush with thick, spaced bristles, but less punchy than if we play with a smaller surface area.

2. The length of the lever with which we play: as already explained in the article "levers and dynamic control," we can choose the length of the lever with which we operate the key: if the finger movement starts only from the knuckle, we will have a short lever, like a short bristle brush, suitable for short, staccato sounds. If, on the other hand, we also involve the hand, forearm and arm in the movement, we will have a longer lever, with greater tension on the sound itself: suitable, for example, for long melodic arches.

3. The flexibility and angle of the fret attack: we can choose to keep the finger extremely rigid (like a hard bristle brush), in order to have an incisive and well-focused sound, If, on the other hand, we were looking for a more nuanced timbre, a more elastic lever will be effective, achieved by partial loosening of the phalanx joints, as explained in the previous article "managing the joints."

4. The "density" of the sound, which is directly proportional to the "specific weight" of the finger with which we operate the fret: this parameter is easily managed by graduating the weight of the arm we direct on the finger, also in relation to the angle of attack and the surface used.

The sound will be denser if we use all the weight of the arm, concentrated on a finger with a small attack surface, using a long lever with high stiffness, to avoid weight dispersion. Conversely, a more airy sound, analogous to the stroke of a sparse bristle brush, can be achieved by using little weight (e.g., the weight of the finger alone), and distributing the weight over a larger attack surface (with the finger extended).

Like any great painter, therefore, pianists must be masters in the use of colors and "brushes." A rich and well-rounded supply of "brushes" constitutes an essential element of piano technique

WEIGHTING THE ARM WEIGHT

One of the basic and universal principles of piano technique is the use of the "natural weight" of the arm. However, the topic is complex and lends itself to many misunderstandings. Many piano students struggle to understand exactly what it is, and how to actually transfer arm weight to the key: they often think they are playing with weight, but they are not.

To perceive what the "natural weight" of our arm is, the first thing to do is...weigh it. So we take a digital kitchen scale, with a flat, extended platform, and place it on a table of similar height to the piano keyboard. We will need the scale for the following exercises, and it will help us become more aware of the actual use of weight, and the muscle control essential for our piano technique. The exercises are to be done in order, and only when we are certain that we have properly understood and accomplished one exercise can we move on to the next.

1. Closed fist.

Sitting at our table, we rest our arm, with clenched fist, on the scale, without making any voluntary pressure and without stiffening any muscle from the shoulder down, so as not to hold the weight (see photo). It may be helpful, to ascertain that we are really relaxed, to slightly "dangle" the elbow and appreciate the sense of relaxed leaning. If we are really leaning with the weight of our arm on the scale, the display will indicate about 1,500 g. When the arm is resting with a clenched fist, it is very easy to unload the weight on the scale, because the joints of the hand (the wrist and the three phalanges) are not involved, and therefore there is less risk of weight dispersion. The only muscles that might interfere are those of the shoulder and arm, which should be kept completely relaxed. Should the display indicate a significantly lower weight, we are evidently unconsciously stiffening the shoulder or arm muscles.

2. Thumb

Once we have succeeded in performing the first exercise, we move on to gradually involve the fingers. We start with the thumb, which is the strongest, and therefore easily able to support the weight of the arm. We then repeat exercise 1, but resting the arm on the scale on the thumb alone in the "inverted" position, that is, turning the elbow upward (see photo 2). The weight indicated by the display should, of course, remain the same, or at the limit increase, since we are now also pouring the weight of the shoulder onto the finger, having the elbow in a higher position. If, on the other hand, the weight indicated will be less, it means that we are holding it in some joint of the arm. This exercise is smooth, as the line from the shoulder to the thumb forms an arc integral with the shape of the joints, assuming a more natural position than the one in which the hand should normally be on the fingerboard. Compared to the previous exercise we are involving only one more joint: that of the wrist, whose muscles must now be active. The muscles of the fingers, however, including those of the thumb, should remain relaxed.

3. Four fingers

We place the arm on the scale with the hand in normal "piano" position, then touching the scale with the tips of the index, middle, ring and little fingers, as if playing the keys re-mi-fa-sol. It is important that the four fingers maintain a straight (not curved) shape, so it will be easier for the muscles of the three phalanges to stay tight and support the weight of the arm. The wrist should also be active, maintaining a straight line between the forearm and hand so that the weight of the arm is transmitted to the fingers without dispersion. The thumb, on the other hand, should always remain completely relaxed, as should the shoulder and elbow muscles. If the scale indicates a lower weight than before, we should try to control the relaxation of each muscle.

Many students initially fail to manage the finger muscles independently of the others, partly because of the less natural position than before. It often happens that, in order to put tension on the muscles of the playing finger (which has to bear the weight), the muscles of other fingers or of the arm also stiffen, and in this way the weight is not discharged completely on the fret. Checking with the scale is therefore very effective in detecting these stiffenings and realizing when we are, instead, completely relaxed. We can repeat the exercise by placing only three fingers (2-3-4, or 3-4-5) on the scale and then only two fingers (2-3, 3-4, 4-5). It is important that the unsupported fingers maintain a state of total relaxation. It may happen that we involuntarily raise the little or ring finger, and in such a case we must get used to maintaining constant attention to the state of the muscles of each finger.

4. Single finger straight

When we are sure we are doing the previous exercise correctly, we can move on to weight bearing on each single finger, but always in a straight (not round) position so as not to overload the flexor muscles of the phalangina and phalangette. We start with the index finger, being careful to keep the phalangeal muscles of the index finger and the wrist muscle tight, and to leave all the muscles of the other fingers relaxed. We repeat the exercise by resting the arm back on the scale through the middle, ring and index fingers. The difficulty will be greatest on the weaker fingers, namely the ring and pinky fingers, whose flexor muscles are less accustomed to supporting the weight of the arm (about 1.5 kg) on their own. Simply resting your weight on a single finger for 3-4 seconds is sufficient. In any case, do not exceed 10 seconds of continuous support, so as not to overexert the muscle.

5. Single finger bend

Only when we are able to perform the previous exercises to the best of our ability, can we move on to repeat exercise 4, but with each finger in a round position. In this case, the flexor muscles of each phalanx of the leaning finger will be involved and should be active and supportive so as not to disperse the weight transmission on the key. The scale display will be able to confirm that we are doing this correctly when it indicates the same weight as it did in the previous exercises.

6. Weight transfer between the fingers

Transferring weight between the fingers, without any dispersion or interruption of pressure, is a fundamental principle for legato and for a full-bodied, round sound. To test our skill in applying this technique, we may place the index finger on the scale, so that it supports the weight of the arm, and then gradually place the middle finger as well, so that the weight is divided between the two fingers. At this point, making sure that the scale does not indicate appreciable weight swings, we raise the index finger slightly, so as to channel all the weight of the arm onto the middle finger. We can continue in the same way by transferring the weight from the middle to the ring finger and from the ring finger to the little finger, and then back up to the index finger.

These exercises are certainly unusual compared to more traditional systems for teaching the use of weight on the piano. Their uniqueness lies in the fact that it is here deliberately avoided pairing the weight with the finger snap or drop from above, in order to help the student perceive physically and mentally what it means to "play with weight." Once this awareness is gained, it will then be easier to match weight to other ways of attacking the fret, even in combination with other finger or arm movements, which we will address in later articles.

PRACTICING WITH THE FIDGET SPINNER

The fidget spinner, now simply called a spinner, is a toy that is very fashionable today among the very young: it is a kind of spinning top, with a central axis of rotation around which some blades rotate, thanks to the presence of simple bearing mechanism. Often condemned by teachers because it distracts students, the spinner can, however, be very useful for piano students to develop various technical skills: finger muscle independence, tactile fingertip sensitivity, snapping of the phalanx flexor muscles, and double note technique.

Here we suggest four simple piano exercises, to carve out a few fruitful minutes of practice even when you are traveling and do not have a piano. For these exercises, we recommend using the traditional form spinner, that is, the one with three paddles spinning around the central axis (like the one shown in the photo). All exercises are intended to be done with separate hands. Exercises 3 and 4, once you are able to perform them fluently, can also be repeated with both hands at the same time, in which case using a spinner for each hand.

Exercise 1, to develop the "prehensile" snap of the last phalanx, which is useful in performing staccato passages and to achieve a grainy sound even in very rapid scales or arpeggios. Hold the spinner with the left hand, keeping the center of the spinner upright between the thumb and index finger. With the index finger of the right hand, impart a very rapid pulse on one of the grooves between the three blades, so that the last phalanx of the index finger makes a rapid inward motion, so that the spinner rotates rapidly clockwise. Allow the spinner to rotate and stop it with lo after at least 5 seconds, noting how the speed and duration of the spinner's rotation can vary depending on the force imparted by the impulse. Repeat the exercise for at least 10 times, also alternating the other fingers of the right hand except the thumb. It is very important that all but the two fingers of the left hand holding the spinner are relaxed at all times. The exercise can be repeated by reversing the hands.

Exercise 2, for pianissimo control: repeat exercise 1, but making a slow, measured indent movement with the index finger, about three or four millimeters, corresponding to the minimum key travel required to achieve a pianissimo, thus not triggering the rotary movement. This exercise, too, can be repeated with the other fingers (middle, ring and millet).

Exercise 3, to improve muscle independence in double-note passages. Place the spinner on a table of similar height to the piano keyboard. While sitting on a chair or bench of similar height to the piano keyboard, rest your index finger on the center of the spinner, resting the weight of your entire arm on it. Leaving the weight resting steadily on the index finger, give quick pulses with the middle finger on the surface of one of the paddles, so as to push the paddle to rotate rapidly clockwise. Repeat several times, but separate each impulse with pauses of at least 5 seconds. The exercise, described here with fingerings 2-3, can be repeated with fingerings 3-4, 4-5, 5-4, 4-3, 3-2 (the first number indicates the finger resting with weight on the center of the spinner, the second number indicates the finger giving the impulse). The exercise can also be performed without the weight, and in that case the finger on the center the spinner will exert pressure only due to the weight of the hand, while the weight of the arm will be held in suspension on the forearm. Pay close attention to the relaxation of the uninvolved fingers of the exercise: they should always maintain a resting position, avoiding involuntary movements.

Exercise 4, for pianissimo control in double notes. Place the index finger in the center of the spinner, as in Exercise 3, and move one blade very slowly counterclockwise, grazing its surface with the middle finger, imparting a slow and regular rotary motion, to be fed by grazing each blade again as it passes under the finger, so as to maintain the regularity of the spinner's rotation. The exercise can also be done by thinning out the "reinforcement" pulses every two or three passes of the blades under the finger.

THE PRINCIPLE OF INERTIA

"A body maintains its state of stillness or uniform rectilinear motion until a force acts upon it" (first principle of dynamics, or "principle of inertia").

In dealing with musical tensions we are continually confronted with the application of natural forces and laws, of which, however, we are often unaware of their presence and operation. One of the most obvious is the force of inertia, which manifests itself in multiple aspects, both purely musical and in relation to the emission of sound through the instrument (the piano in our case).

Inertia is the natural tendency of bodies to maintain the state of stillness or motion they are already in. They change state (slow down, speed up) as a result of the action of external elements (friction or other forces).

Since in uniform rectilinear motion velocity is vector constant (in modulus, direction and direction), any change in velocity and direction occurs through the action of external forces.

In music, therefore, the principle of inertia can be experienced in two different aspects: in the direction and direction of a melodic motion (1) and in its velocity (2).

1. Inertia in direction: here we mean the tendency to perceive uniform motion and a melodic line to change direction or direction. For example, in an ascending scale by straight motion that changes direction or reverses direction by turning back, it will be natural to perceive a centrifugal thrust, due to the force of inertia, on the keystone note, just as it happens when, driving a car, we face a curve and feel pushed out of the curve.

In fact, centrifugal thrust is nothing more than a consequence of the principle of inertia: since a body tends to keep its rectilinear motion constant, both in velocity and direction, any alteration in rectilinear motion is perceived as a tendency to maintain it: even in music.

In phrasing, therefore, we can treasure this perception to emphasize it through dynamics or agogics: if we increase the dynamics on the keystone note and adjacent notes (before and after it), the listener will also perceive the "centrifugal thrust" within the melodic curve. Also with agogics we can emphasize the increased tension given by the centrifugal thrust on the vault notes by widening them slightly. Claudio Arrau, among pianists, was a master in the natural and organic application of this principle.

2. Inertia in velocity: our ear has a tendency to perceive (and, therefore, to play) a given passage with the same velocity, even in the presence of tempo changes (constant velocity). So any change in tempo is determined by external forces, i.e., by the performer's actions that must be well focused and calibrated.

In the case of a rallentando, we will be able to perceive the impetus given by the force of inertia, which tends to keep the speed constant, and thus to resist "braking," just as it happens in a car or train. A musically organic rallentando, then, will be one that considers the force of inertia, and doses the decrease in speed according to a gradual curve, which in nature is almost never linear. Usually, in fact, the first phase of the rallentando is more gradual, and the action of friction (braking) becomes increasingly effective as the rallentando continues. Slowdowns that proceed "in jerks," therefore, usually sound unnatural, although often the composer's intended effect may be that of a deliberate, drastic alteration of natural motion (as is often the case in Beethoven).

The same principle applies, of course, to all tempo changes, even drastic ones without a rallentando or accelerando. In such cases, the force of inertia tends to make us maintain the previous tempo, thus smoothing out the rapid change of speed often required in the score. It is important, therefore, to anticipate any drastic change in tempo well in advance, as a conductor would, to zero in on the limiting effect of the force of inertia. It is we performers who impart that "external force" that determines the change in uniform motion.

This happens every time we begin to play a piece, as we move from the state of stillness to the state of motion. The difficulty for many performers is in knowing how to define the tempo of a piece from the very first notes, and there are those who tend, involuntarily going along with the force of inertia, to pick up the tempo a little at a time. To avoid this, if it is not an intended effect, it is sufficient to think about the initial tempo in advance, mentally playing the beginning of the piece: thus we will start the music before the execution of the first note, and "enter" into it as if boarding a running train. thus without suffering the force of inertia.

Each performer, after all, develops over the years his own way of acting and changing the form and parameters of each phrase. The more conscious the performer's actions are and in clear relationship with natural laws, the more effective and engaging the expressive result will be.

CHOOSING THE RIGHT FINGER

The choice of fingering is a crucial aspect in the resolution of many passages. Many composers who were also pianists, such as Chopin, Schumann, and Liszt, wrote the fingerings on their scores in their own hand, since the choice of a particular hand arrangement, given by that particular fingering, also conditions the timbral result and the dynamic form of a musical phrase.

When choosing fingerings, it is therefore essential to take into account the solutions suggested by the composers right away, and to try to understand the intention behind them: often, especially in the case of Schumann or Chopin, the proposed fingerings may seem abstruse, but on closer inspection they "force" the hand to assume an arrangement that will produce a particular timbre, desired by the composer.

In case the fingering is not indicated by the composer but by the reviser, it is always worth trying it out and checking what the effect is in performance. Some editions of Beethoven's Sonatas, for example, are fingered by great pianists (Schnabel-Curci, Arrau-Peters, Perahia-Henle), just as in Mozart's concertos Christian Zacharias' fingerings are often illuminating.

It is always worthwhile, however, and especially in cases where the "fingering" is not an excellent pianist, to try and research other fingerings, to realize how a different hand set-up leads to a consequent musical result.

Indeed, the choice of a fingering affects other aspects of performance: it forces one to assume a different hand position, to group and think about notes differently, to distribute weight differently. Gaze management on the fingerboard will also be dependent on fingering, as it must focus on the changes in position brought about precisely by the groupings of notes imposed by each fingering.

The choice of fingering should be dictated by our musical intention, even before the convenience of execution. For example, if we use the thumb on a note, we will probably get a "down" attack, while if we want to fade the note we will use another finger, which is more compatible with the upward movement of the wrist needed to get an "up" attack. Depending, then, on the articulation and dynamics we want to achieve, we will choose an appropriate fingering.

In fingering a scale, it is useful to look at the harmonies that are crossed, to choose on which note to pass the thumb. In fact, in position changes, so even in the keys played by the thumb in ascending scales, unintentional accents can occur. The C major scale, for example, works harmonically better if you turn your thumb to the G (fundamental degree of the G major chord, dominant of C) rather than to the F, as we have been accustomed to from traditional school fingering.

The choice of fingering should always be coupled with the choice of hand and arm set-up with that we adopt to play it. In fact, the same fingering may work more or less well depending on how we hold the wrist and forearm, the orientation of the hand, and the position of the fingers (round or straight). All these details are not indicated by fingering numbers, but can easily be deduced from experience. For example, the 1-2-4-5 fingering of the beginning of Chopin's Etude Op. 10 No. 1 would be impossible if we keep our fingers round, while it works just fine if we open our hand and accompany its movement with a slight rotation, to ease the playing finger. The study of fingerings should, therefore, be combined with special care in the movements of the hand: it is important always to anticipate the positioning of each finger on the fret, and to program a conscious way of looking, especially in changes of hand position. Fingering that works will always allow us to prepare for position changes with the necessary ease, and without forcing the hand and arm into abrupt or uncomfortable movements. Conversely, precarious sound control, or unintentional accents, are often caused by inappropriate fingering or insufficiently supported by the right hand stance.

Even seemingly unnecessary fingerings are, in fact, often functional for better performance. Such is the case with finger switching on the same note, a very common practice in Chopin's fingerings: he often uses finger switching on a held note to force our ear to tie a phrase better. When, in fact, we change our finger on the same held note we force our ear to re-listen to the resonance of the note, as if we were to resonate it, and this helps us connect the resonance of the note to the next one.

Another useful principle in choosing fingering is that of "fresh fingering": in passages of scales or arpeggios you often understand that you are "going over" on the same fret a short distance away. In this case, to avoid repetitive expression, it is useful to return to the same fret with a different finger to make the phrasing more varied and less predictable.

Inappropriate fingering can often be the cause of repeated errors. In the case of unresolved passages, it is useful to try playing them with different fingerings, and sometimes this can instantly solve technical problems.

Changing a fingering we are accustomed to, however, should be done with caution and not in the run-up to a concert or public performance, as changing automatisms takes time and methodical study.

MANAGING PIANO TIMBRES

The most effective ways to affect sound quality mainly concern dynamics, synchronization, and pedaling.

1. Dynamics.

Timbre changes considerably when the dynamic relationship between the various notes is varied: either horizontally (considering the relationship of a note to the preceding and following notes) or vertically (giving different weight to each individual sound that makes up a chord). Here, clearly, piano timbre does not mean the sound quality of a single note, but the result of the superposition or succession of several sounds, resulting in a chord or melodic line. Every great pianist has his or her own way of dosing and combining the dynamics of sounds to achieve a given timbre, just as painters do with colors. It is therefore impossible to summarize in a few lines the principles governing the combination of dynamics in a chord or line, but without a doubt a considerable variety of dynamics is indispensable to achieve richness of timbre. For example, if in a chord all sounds will have the same dynamics, the timbral result will be somewhat dull and dull. Even in a melodic line, it is essential to vary the dynamics of each note, otherwise the phrasing will be static and lacking in inflection.

2. Timing.

Timbre also varies greatly depending on the synchronization of the overlapping sounds: often, by anticipating or postponing the bass with respect to the melody, it is possible to enrich the sound of the cantabile, since with the lowering of the keys that are not perfectly synchronized, more harmonics are developed. The so-called "scampanío," or anticipation of the bass relative to the melody, is a procedure known to all pianists, and often "forbidden" by teachers. In reality, when used appropriately, it allows for a better projection of sound, as the effect of hammering is dampened, and the independence of the various lines is better perceived. It is no accident that almost all the greatest pianists have made extensive use of this expedient: among the most assiduous users of the "scampanío" are Benedetti Michelangeli, Cortot, Friedmann, and Rachmaninoff. The opposite effect, that is, the anticipation of the melody on the bass, is also very effective. The delayed arrival of the bass allows an additional amount of harmonics to develop in the strings that are already vibrating, resulting in a kind of extension of the dynamic curve. Many Russian pianists, including Kissin, use this procedure systematically.

3. Pedals.

a) The "una corda" pedal. With the left pedal, known as "una corda," one is not only able to achieve dynamic tapering: one can also vary the richness of the timbre in various gradations, lowering it all or only partially. The action of the "one-string" pedal, in fact, consists of moving the hammerboard sideways so that the strings are struck from a different area of the hammer. When this pedal is fully depressed, only two out of three strings are touched by the hammer, resulting in dynamic and timbral thinning. But even when the pedal is only partially depressed, a change in sound results, as the point of contact of the hammer with the strings varies. If the "one string" pedal is not depressed at all, the strings are affected by an area of the hammer of considerable hardness and firmness, due to the "groove" formed by frequent striking. With the "one-string" pedal lowered, the hammer, moving laterally, will touch the strings with a part that is less "beaten" (lacking the groove), and characterized by greater elasticity, so as to develop a less percussive and softer sound. The effectiveness of the "one string" pedal is much more evident in the high register of the instrument, but it is also of great use in other registers. It should not only be used for playing piano or pianissimo. It is also possible, for example, to play fortissimo with the "one string" pedal fully down: this will produce a very defined and incisive sound, but at the same time indirect and distant.

(b) The tonal pedal. The central pedal of the grand piano, called the tonal pedal, makes it possible to keep up the dampers of only those keys that are pressed at the time of its actuation, so as to leave some strings in vibration, and at the same time obtain short or staccato sounds with other strings. An interesting potentiality of this pedal concerns the development of harmonic sounds: in fact, by raising the dampers of some strings, they will be placed in vibration by sympathetically (without being struck by the hammer) by other strings corresponding to one of the nearest harmonic sounds. The tonal pedal has been popular since the second half of the 1800s, but this does not detract from the fact that it can also be used effectively in the performance of previously composed music.

(c) The resonance pedal. On the subject of the right pedal, known as the "resonance pedal," or simply "pedal," I would like to point out K. U. Schnabel's very useful book, "Modern Pedal Technique" (Edizioni Curci), in which some unconventional ways of using the pedal are clearly illustrated, such as, for example, the vibrato pedal, the half pedal, the partial pedal change. Thanks to the pedal, it is also possible to achieve Forte-Piano and diminuendo effects on the same held note (by partially raising the pedal and lowering it again), as well as particular types of staccato (playing staccato with the pedal partially lowered) and "superlegato" (changing the pedal partially, or late). A frequently used expedient is to lower the pedal before starting a piece: this will result in greater richness of timbre, since many strings that are not struck will vibrate out of sympathy. Making fast or "pianissimo" passages is also much smoother when the pedal is lowered, since in that case the mechanics become lighter (not having to operate the dampers, which are already up) and the hammer stroke is much more controllable and smooth. It is also to dispel the "dogma" that prescribes changing the pedal when the harmony changes. On the contrary, sometimes it is precisely by partially mixing different harmonies that particularly beautiful timbral effects are achieved. Moreover, Beethoven, Schumann, Chopin and Liszt also prescribed in their own right the use of long pedals, resulting in the superimposition of different harmonies. A typical example is the third movement of Beethoven's Sonata Op. 53. Even considering that today's pianos have greater resonance, it is still possible to respect those indications, possibly by resorting to partial pedal changes. Radu Lupu is a great master in this regard.

Beyond these considerations, for each of which an entire book would have to be written, I believe, however, that even a note considered individually, regardless of dynamic relationships with other sounds and the use of pedals, can be varied timbrally. I believe, in essence, that if the same key on the same piano is operated in different ways (at the same dynamic intensity and with the same type of pedalization), different timbres can be obtained.

This is especially possible by intervening on the sound after the string is struck. In this regard, I would like to talk about particular techniques that make it possible to increase or decrease string vibrations.

The prolongation of sound duration: the "piano vibrato." To prolong and amplify the vibration of the strings after they have been struck, a procedure called "piano vibrato" can be used. This is achieved by partially raising and lowering the key after the hammer has struck the string. In this way, the hammer will move back closer to the strings that have already been struck, increasing the amplitude of the vibrations by virtue of the displacement of air and the movement of the mechanics. This will result in a sound that is richer in harmonics and longer lasting. It is almost essential to perform vibrato while holding down the right pedal, lest the dampers, as they lower, block the vibration of the strings. The frequency and amplitude of vibrato can be larger or smaller, resulting in varying tonal gradation. If vibrato is adopted for all notes of the same chord, the result is even more noticeable. Of course, the use of vibrato is only possible with grand pianos, as the mechanics of upright pianos do not allow for good control of the movement of the hammers. Even in grand pianos, moreover, the implementation of vibrato requires great skill and experience, as well as optimal adjustment of the mechanics, so as not to incur the involuntary repercussion of the strings. Pianos with a better soundboard are more sensitive to the effect of vibrato. Some of the greatest pianists often used vibrato: the videos of Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli are a very useful testimony in this regard. The use of vibrato is the basis of the teaching of Karl Ulrich Schnabel, one of the greatest piano teachers in the twentieth century.

The shortening of sound duration. Instead, to achieve a more punchy, percussive sound, simply dampen the vibrations of the strings by partially (once or several times) raising the keys, so that the dampers graze the strings for a moment. In this way the diminuendo marks on long notes, often found in the piano scores of Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Liszt, can be realized. This effect can also be achieved with the aid of the pedal, as already mentioned, and can also be used very effectively in conjunction with vibrato.

I dare not go into further, more random and not (yet) scientifically provable considerations about piano touch. Personally, however, I am convinced that a different physical approach with the keyboard determines a different sonic result, regardless of dynamic intensity. What matters most, however, is intention, that is, the performer's timbral imagination: without which, even the most effective technical control of sound would be sterile.